The recent fires that have ravaged large parts of Indonesia have spurred widespread demands for action to tackle the problem. In 1999 CIFOR and a partner CGIAR institute also based in Bogor, the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), launched a joint research project that is taking a dramatically different approach from most fire-fighting efforts.

The scientists are working to get at the heart of the problem: Who is setting the fires, and why? Pinpointing the underlying causes will better enable national and regional policy makers to draft regulations and land use reforms aimed at curbing major outbreaks of fire, which often spread out of control as they did in 1997-98 and earlier years.

Field work for this research, funded largely by the U.S. Forest Service and coordinated by CIFOR’s Graham Applegate, began in 1999 at eight sites in Sumatra and Kalimantan – the two hardest-hit areas in the 1997-98 fires. The methodology combines social science research with remote sensing and GIS to provide a comprehensive analysis of the origins of the fires, people’s motives for setting them, and the social and environmental impacts. Ten sites for the in-depth studies were selected to represent different forest types and land uses, socio-economic settings and other possible contributing factors to major fires such as the prevailing land tenure systems.

Initial results indicate that the problem is indeed complex and varies significantly from province to province. "The research shows that fire may be used as a helpful tool or

as a weapon in different scenarios," notes Rona Dennis, the remote sensing/GIS coordinator for the project.

At one of the sites in Sumatra, for example, the studies revealed deep-seated conflicts between local people and companies establishing industrial plantations and oil palm estates – tensions that have been exacerbated by inadequate policies for land use planning. The research documented incidents in which local people deliberately set fires to retaliate for the takeover of land previously used for agriculture. In West Kalimantan, one of the study sites lies within a national park, where local people have used fire for hundreds of years to burn away patches of swampy forest for fishing. But today, the research shows, a growing influx of people and the severe dry conditions associated with El Niņo, among other things, have made fire outbreaks a major problem in the area.

The CIFOR-ICRAF work draws on the findings of complementary fire research projects by several other organisations. The scientists will eventually integrate the site-specific studies and the island-wide assessments to provide a solid foundation for government-oriented policy analysis and recommendations.

The work is especially timely and relevant for Indonesia as democratisation and a move toward devolution of power offer a window of opportunity for policy changes. Such information will also aid institutions such as the Association of South East Asian Nations, which has pledged to curb trans-boundary haze emanating from the recurrent forest fires.

The research is set to continue with additional funding from the European Union. Later stages will include training and technical assistance to strengthen Indonesia’s ability to carry out fire-related research and analysis.

"Experts agree that the 1997/1998 forest conflagration in Indonesia was a global environmental catastrophe."
The Jakarta Post, 29 June 1999

Good Prospects for Reduced-Impact Logging in Indonesia

Preliminary results from recent experiments at Bulungan Research Forest are highly encouraging for officials in Indonesia who want to adopt more environmentally sensitive logging practices throughout the country’s forests. According to a cost-benefit analysis by Hariyatno Dwiprabowo, reduced-impact logging techniques are less costly and less destructive in comparison with conventional harvesting. "Although the trial suggested there is still room for improvement, it is a very promising approach for adoption by concessionaires in Indonesia," he concluded.

Reduced-impact logging consists of timber extraction methods designed to reduce the major ecological damage often caused by conventional logging practices. Studies of reduced-impact logging elsewhere have demonstrated its viability and cost-effectiveness. Results can vary, however, according to local conditions. Therefore, the Indonesian government requested the experiments to test the feasibility of the approach for forests in Indonesia. Major support for the research was provided by the International Tropical Timber Organisation.

In the past, logging in the nation’s forests has caused excessive damage to residual stands of trees and left large amounts of residue. Such damage can wreck the ecology and resilience of forests. It reduces wildlife habitats, contributes to erosion and increases the risk of damage from forest fires. Yet timber concessionaires in Indonesia have been concerned that the use of reduced-impact techniques would increase logging costs because of the need for better planning and supervision of harvests.

CIFOR’s chief partner in the field trials was Inhutani II, a government timber concession; forest ecologist Plinio Sist supervised implementation of the reduced-logging techniques. The experiments, done in 100-hectare blocks, were designed to compare conventional logging with reduced-impact harvesting in regard to productivity, amount of residue left in the forest and logging costs, among other things. The cost assessment was based on operational or technical costs, mainly related to pre-harvest planning and the felling and skidding operations.

The preliminary study showed that, compared with conventional harvesting, the reduced-impact approach improved productivity. Although planning costs were higher because of the need for more accurate inventory and more intensive training, the additional costs were offset by the lower cost of felling and skidding operations resulting from increased productivity in a better planned operation. The reduced-impact harvesting methods also produced a significantly lower volume of log waste (logs not recovered) as a result of proper road layout and correct felling. This translates into more potential revenue for the company. Finally, site damage was reduced in the form of significantly fewer land openings caused by skid trails and log landings. The damage to remaining trees was also found to be less.

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Degraded Forest Land: Recouping a Lost Resource

In a major project funded by Japan, CIFOR and its research partners in several countries are seeking the best methods to rehabilitate degraded forests and accelerate natural regeneration in forests that have been logged.

Scientific knowledge in this area is limited, but crucially needed. Every year the world loses an estimated 17 million hectares of tropical forest. The problem is compounded by damage to remaining forests from the effects of logging, erosion, poor management and other causes. Returning this land to productivity will help replenish forest stock and provide environmental protection and other benefits.

Field trials have been underway since 1995 at sites in Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Peru and Thailand to investigate a variety of corrective measures. The Japan Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute in Tsukuba is CIFOR’s main partner in this project, which has been coordinated by Shigeyo Kobayashi. Despite the long-term nature of these studies, they are already providing much practical information that can aid forest rehabilitation efforts. To facilitate dissemination, the grant from the Japan International Cooperation Agency is also funding the creation of a related information and database network.

In November, more than three dozen researchers from participating sites met at CIFOR to present some of their interim results. Researchers from Mulawarman University in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, reported on a number of experiments in mixed dipterocarp forests that have been logged and heavily burnt by wild fires. One approach is seeking to return the forest to its multi-purpose function through a taungya system, in which farmers grow cash crops such as cocoa, soya beans, coffee, corn and cassava among the newly planted trees. The research is investigating planting methods to optimise production, thereby ensuring local support for the technique, which has strong potential for adoption in other developing countries. Other Mulawarman scientists are studying, among other things, post-fire biological changes in various tree species and the effect on wood quality, and whether logging and fire exposure make the remaining trees in a debilitated forest more susceptible to diseases.

Also in this project, the Istituto Nacional de Investigacion Agraria in Peru is conducting trials in the Ucayali region of the Amazon to identify native tree species that will perform well in the re-vegetation of abandoned farm fields where the soil is poor. Similarly, government scientists in Papua New Guinea are seeking the best species for rehabilitation of logged-over forests at high and low altitudes, along with the best planting techniques to optimise growth. And at a forest reserve in Jempol, Malaysia, researchers from Universiti Putra Malaysia are studying soil problems that have hindered the growth of young seedlings planted in logged-over lowland forests.

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Boosting Productivity of Tropical Plantations

Fast-growing tropical plantations are an attractive prospect for many tropical countries because they help meet the demand for wood while easing pressures on natural forests. They also offer a way to recapture the benefits of degraded land. Yet planted forests in many tropical countries fail to meet performance expectations because of poor soil, long-time erosion and other conditions. Short-rotation harvesting adds to the problem by leaching nutrients and accelerating soil degradation.

New knowledge emerging from a set of international experiments coordinated by CIFOR offers managers of tropical plantations a highly promising strategy for managing plantations to improve long-term soil fertility and productivity. Trials at 14 sites in seven countries are investigating optimal methods for recycling the organic residue that is usually removed during clear-cut logging, as a strategy to enrich the soil over successive harvests. A monograph published in 1999 describes some of the initial findings from this unique research project, which began in 1995.

An important discovery so far is that the alternative soil enrichment treatments being tested appear to offer a more sound fertilising approach for plantations than residue burning – currently the most commonly used site preparation practice after clear-felling. Residue burning provides a "starter effect" on a new tree crop by releasing the nutrients of organic ground litter into the soil. But these research results show that such benefits are relatively short lived. In experiments comparing residue burning with residue-retention methods, researchers found that most of the nutrients supplied to the young trees through burning did not last long because of leaching. In some cases, the increased amount of nutrients fell to pre-burn levels within one to two years later.

Furthermore, at several of the experimental sites where soil fertility was quite low, retention of the organic residue at the highest level tested was shown to significantly improve tree growth over time. "Our research shows that the slow release of the same amount of nutrients by decay is a much more efficient approach [than residue burning] in terms of tree nutrition," said Christian Cossalter, a silviculture specialist who is coordinating the experiments. The methods under investigation also have fewer environmental consequences in terms of reduced fire risk and preventing the release of additional carbon into the atmosphere.

The encouraging results so far have led plantation managers for at least two of the experimental sites, in Queensland, Australia, and the Congo, to incorporate the findings into present management practices.

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Exploring the Promise of Secondary Forests

A growing body of research suggests that secondary forests, which grow up where native forest has been cleared for farming or ranching, can offer many of the same benefits that primary forests provide – from non-timber forest products to environmental services. Therefore, encouraging frontier farmers to retain large segments of secondary forest rather than returning it to farm land after a fallow period as they are inclined to do could help increase forest cover in many tropical countries.

Incentives are needed to promote that option. CIFOR scientists Joyotee Smith and Cesar Sabogal are working to identify ways that farmers might derive greater benefits from retaining larger areas of secondary forest. CATIE in Costa Rica and national research organisations in Brazil, Peru and Nicaragua are key partners in this research, which is funded by the Inter-American Development Bank, the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation and PRODETAB, a programme of the World Bank and EMBRAPA in Brazil.

In 1999, the researchers advanced their development of a dynamic model to explain the cycle of slash-and-burn agricultural production and the role of secondary forests in this process. Understanding this cycle should suggest opportunities for intervention to encourage farming households to retain more secondary forest as part of their land holdings. Most secondary forest is used as fallow to enrich soil for later farming. It may also provide some products that add to the value of agricultural crops and improve the quality of life for small-scale farmers. But patches of secondary forest may be maintained on a more permanent basis for commercial non-timber forest products or for environmental benefits, such as protecting water supplies for cattle.

The scientists concluded that secondary forest management strategies should be part of an integrated strategy that simultaneously improves the management of farmers’ other natural resources, such as agricultural land and residual primary forests. Different strategies will be required for older and newer settlement areas. In older areas, the usefulness of secondary forests needs to be maintained by reducing pressures for shorter fallows. In newer areas, policies and technologies are required to prevent further conversion of residual forest to agriculture and to maintain fallow areas as permanent secondary forest.

In their investigation of factors that influence the size and use of secondary forest, the researchers found that secondary forest area declines when population density increases, particularly when combined with declines in agricultural productivity. Extensive cattle ranching has a negative effect on the retention of both forest fallows and residual primary forest.

One promising option being explored to increase the value of residual forests is paying farmers for the value of the carbon stored in the trees, as proposed under the Kyoto Protocol. This scheme might induce farmers to remove older secondary forest fallows from the agricultural cycle and maintain them as permanent secondary forest.

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Managing Miombo Woodlands to Benefit African Communities

In southern Africa, CIFOR is working with local institutions to improve the manage-ment of miombo woodlands, the most extensive dry forest formation in the world. These forests, which are important to the livelihood of millions of people, face threats from conversion to cropland and the commer-cialisation of a wide range of forest products.

Through studies in Tanzania, Malawi and Zimbabwe, supported by the European Union and the Southern Africa Development Community, scientists are studying the effects of national policies on local forest use, as well as local governance structures. The policy analysis is important because patterns of forest use change significantly in response to policies on agricultural pricing, land resettlement and structural adjustment. Simulation models are being developed to aid the analysis.

Recent findings show trends of increased reliance on the woodlands that have serious implications for their survival. Government policies have reduced support for agriculture; this combined with high inflation and devaluation of the local currency has increased the cost of agricultural production. As farming became too costly and less profitable, people in the area turned instead to products of the forest to make a living.

In a survey of six communities in Tanzania, the researchers found that farmers were deriving an astonishing 58 percent of their cash income from the sale of honey, charcoal, fuelwood and wild fruits from the forests. Honey was the most significant product of trade for all the villages. This poses concerns in relation to the surrounding forests because Tanzania’s bee keepers traditionally make their hives from tree bark. Charcoal production, which was higher in peri-urban areas nearer to markets, provided more than a third of total cash income for households – an average of US$445 per family per year. There is evidence that charcoal harvesting is causing rapid deforestation and degradation in some areas.

On the positive side, notes Godwin Kowero, the coordinator of the miombo woodlands project, the newly emerging trade in forest products has the potential to expand the basis for local enterprise development and diversified livelihoods. This could reduce reliance on agriculture – and related clearing of trees for land – as the only means of survival. In related studies of local institutions and governance systems in the three countries, the researchers have documented successes and failures in the management of common property systems.

In Tanzania, for example, some remarkable successes have been achieved with community forestry reserves. Given that these successes are more the exception than the rule, the next phase of the project aims to identify factors that contribute to success.The project is also investigating low-impact industrial harvesting, with trials being conducted in Zambia.

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Human Pressures, Biodiversity Loss

At a nature reserve in southern India, scientists from CIFOR’s Biodiversity Programme are collaborating in research designed to support the creation of effective conservation strategies that protect local endemic species without putting the park off limits to human use. The Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) in Bangalore and Tata Energy Research Institute in New Delhi are key partners in this work.

The research site is the 540-square kilometre Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary. It lies within the Western Ghats, renowned as one of the world’s "biodiversity hotspots". Human-related activities in the park – tourism, commercial development, human settlement (by both tribal and non-tribal people), agriculture, non-timber forest product extraction and cattle grazing – are on the rise, posing an ever growing threat to the area’s wildlife and the forest. The project is quantifying changes in biodiversity and in forest structure and composition that are occurring as a result of these activities.

Another major disturbance is from invasive plant species. Some are being increasingly harvested, especially by poor people, for fuelwood, to be processed for furniture making and other uses. The researchers are investigating the mechanism of this invasiveness and the associated costs and benefits of invasives to biodiversity and people, as the basis for appropriate mitigation strategies.

In 1999, scientists from this project and related studies in the area began synthesising their research results on forest condition and use done at several scales: species, landscape and ecosystem. This data will be used to construct a "holistic" simulation model of the area so mangers can better decide where to allow development and other land use to minimise negative environmental and social impacts. According to CIFOR-based Danish ecologist John Poulsen, the analysis has pointed out, among other things, critical "stress zones" where more intensive conservation efforts are needed.

This approach has potentially wide relevance for many other regional governments and forest departments in India, where surging populations and related pressures on natural resources are raising grave concerns about the fate of the country’s notably rich biodiversity.

"The role of traditional institutions and values in natural forest management has been undermined by present socio-economic policies."
Miombo Woodlands Research Briefs, August 1999

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