s:993:"TI The underlying causes and impacts of fires in South-east Asia: final report 
AU Applegate, G. 
AU Chokkalingam U 
AU Suyanto 
AB Large-scale fires and associated smoke are an increasing problem in Indonesia and surrounding countries. For instance, major fires occurring in the El Niño years 1982/1983, 1987, 1991, 1994, and 1997/1998 (Dennis, 1999) devastated large areas of forest and caused significant economic losses, both in Indonesia where most fires occurred and in neighboring countries. The area burned in the 1997/98 fires is estimated at 9.7 million hectares of forest and non-forest land in Indonesia, with some 75 million people affected by smoke, haze, and the fires themselves. Impacts included damage to health, loss of life, property and reduced livelihood options. The economic costs were estimated to exceed 9 billion USD with carbon emissions high enough to elevate Indonesia to one of the largest polluters in the world (ADB 1999; Barber and Schweithelm, 2000). 
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