Responses to ecosystem change and to their impacts on human well-being

Declining ecosystem trends have been halted, and in some cases re- versed, by innovative local responses. The ‘‘threats’’ observed at an ag- gregated, global level may be overestimated or underestimated from a sub-global perspective. Assessments at an aggregated level often fail to take into account the adaptive capacity of sub-global actors. Through collaboration in social networks, actors can develop new institutions and reorganize to miti- gate declining conditions. On the other hand, sub-global actors tend to neglect drivers that are beyond the reach of their immediate influence when they craft responses. Hence, it is crucial for decision-makers to develop institutions at the global, regional, and national levels that strengthen the adaptive capacity of actors at the sub-national and local levels, so that context-specific responses that address the full range of relevant drivers may be developed. This means neither centralization nor decentralization, but instead institutions at multiple levels that enhance the adaptive capacity and effectiveness of sub-national and local responses. All policy tools (instruments for executing responses) are by definition implemented in a specific institutional context. A focus on strengthening adaptive capacity and institutional interaction is more important than as- sessing individual policy tools in isolation. The sub-global assessments provided clear examples of various instruments for executing responses. The potential effectiveness of each instrument is increased if general legislation and economic incentives provide an enabling institutional framework, if a blend of scientific and more context-specific knowledge systems is used in crafting the response, if the dominant value system acknowledges the complexity of ecosystem dynamics, and if institutional interaction is benign. Natural resource management always involves conflicting interests, and the main lesson learned from this assessment of responses is that innovative ways of collaboration and conflict resolution, together with a reasonable legal and economic framework, are often crucial for effective responses.

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