s:2815:"%T Deforestation and livestock expansion in the Brazilian Amazon and Costa Rica: Drivers, Environmental Degradation, and Policies for Sustainable Land Management 
%A Ibrahim M 
%A Porro R 
%A Mauricio R M 
%X In Latin America a large percentage of virgin forest has been converted for cattle ranching and to some extent for industrial agricultural production. The conversion of forest to cattle ranch- ing based on unsustainable management of grass monoculture pastures is associated with land degradation, leading to loss of farm productivity and environmental degradation. The linkages between cattle ranching and deforestation and environmental degradation have been a subject of debate by conservationists and demand a critical analysis of the driv- ers that induced deforestation, and the impacts on the environ- ment and natural resources, and what polices were instituted to restrain cattle-linked deforestation. This chapter analyzes the linkages between deforestation and cattle ranching using Costa Rica and the Brazilian Legal Amazon (the states of Acre, Amazonas, Roraima, Amapá, Pará, Rondônia, Mato Grosso, Tocantins, and Maranhão) as contrasting case studies of differ- ent policy approaches and different outcomes. Policy similarities in the two countries included subsidized credits to establish pastures on deforested lands, provision of titles for land cleared and managed with cattle, and road con- struction. Various changing market forces were also responsi- ble for deforestation, including international demand and good prices for beef, health and food safety issues in the European Union, and high demand for Brazilian soybean, soy meal, and soybean oil. There are also policy differences. To curb deforestation, the Costa Rican government introduced environmental regulations and policies that led to progressive recovery of forest cover, including establishment of national parks and protected areas representing more than 35% of the total forest cover in 2005. Costa Rica has pioneered a payment for environmental ser- vices system that has successfully protected remaining forests as well as woodlands within agricultural areas. The Brazilian government has implemented similar policies with less suc- cess due to lack of resources (equipment, staff, etc.) to monitor forest cover and weak enforcement of the laws against illegal deforestation. Brazil has also been innovating in payment for environmental services, and there are huge potentials for saving remnant forest in the Amazon through the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries program. Certifica- tion of cattle and soy products for environmental compliance represents another avenue for providing incentives for sustain- able crop and livestock development while conserving forest resources. 
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